Aristotle and His Numerous Essay

Aristotle As an important figure head in the field of philosophy, Aristotle and his numerous influences will be detailed. Identification and evaluation of key concepts and analyses that comprised his theories will be discussed along with identification and description of his contributions to the field of philosophy will also be offered. Lastly, further discussion will focus on how the culture and the time period influenced his ideology. Metaphysics Metaphysics is a branch philosophy concerned with explaining the fundamental nature of being. It is considered to be one of the greatest philosophical works. It kind of piggy backs off of Plato’s theory of forms. Plato believed that the nature of things is eternal and doesn’t change, but we know from just living in this world that things are always changing daily. Aristotle wanted to reconcile these contradictory statements of the views of the world. Aristotle used the influence of both Heraclitus and Parmenides. One believed that things appear to be permanent but they are really gradually changing all the time. Parmenides, argued certain conclusions could be reached by using reason alone and making no use of senses. After studying at the Academy, Aristotle would turn against his teaching and felt that there was a connection between the abstraction of existence and the science of nature. Aristotle described substance as material reality and formal and discusses the connection between actuality and potentiality. According to Aristotle, the being of any individual thing is primarily defined by what it is, i. e. by its substance. It is both Substratum (matter) and essence (form) and can combine them both (form and matter). He also believed that wisdom is knowledge and principle cause of things. He explained that there are four causes of things: the purpose for which a thing has being (the final cause), the source of â€Å"motion† or change in a thing (the efficient cause), the matter and subject of a thing (the material cause), and the substance or essence of a thing (the formal cause). He also believed that change will occur in something in order for its potential to become a reality. In order to have a cause and affect relationship between two different things, it will include the potentiality of a cause to produce and effect and an effect to be produced by a cause. According to Aristotle, there has to be actual potentiality in order for an event to happen and if its potentiality can become actuality. Epistemology Aristotle was the first to formalize a foundationalism epistemology. Foundationalism is the idea that knowledge claims are ultimately justified by first principles. I intend to define and describe these first principles as well as explain how it is we come to know the first principles. A first principle is an infallible truth, Kath auto, in itself. These first principles are not conclusions of prior arguments, but the absence of the need of an argument, in and of itself. First principles are also called the archai, nous, understanding and the axioms. When Aristotle speaks of Archai and axioms his meaning is, that which is ‘the beginning’. It is for this reason that geometry passed down the language of the axioms. Of first principles there are two main types: 1. Axioms or common principles are the general or universal truths 2. Posits or proper principles are the thesis’ or truths to a certain science. Also, among the posits are suppositions, that something is or is not, and definitions of what something is. The only way to know the first principles is through nous. Nous uses induction through perception to grasp the first principles. Nous is the capacity of rational thought and understanding. It is through a perceptual process that the first principles can be known. The process followed in coming to know the first principles is through, use of perception, a potentiality that Aristotle believes all animals possess in varying degrees. 1. Sensation is the first step, and the grounds for memory. 2. Memory is a potentiality that many animals possess. 3. Experience comes from the foundation of memory; some animals have the potential to experience. 4. Human beings alone have the potential to make a rational account of their perceptions. The axioms and first principles can only be induced from that which persists in the world we experience; the world as we know it. In many ways Aristotle’s epistemology has survived the tests of time. It seems correct; Aristotle’s foundational views are accurate. As a linear theories of justification Aristotle leaves us with a justified belief, with which we can have a great certainty in relation to its validity. Full filling the common test of epistemology as a justified, true, belief. There is little or no truth attributed to an infinite regress of justification. Just as there is little or no ground for circular theories of justification. Either proposes a void in justification, by justifying with a prior axiom or by always continuing to a deeper axiom in need of justification. The believe that the first principles do exist and that they can be grasped through the human faculty, known as nous, is shared implicitly by much of the world today and is the legacy of Aristotle. Axiology Aristotle was best known for his theory on values, â€Å"Golden Mean,† which is about moderation, balance, and harmony for his axiological system. The basic realism, he believed in essence, which is the attributes for an object to be what it is. The main focus for Aristotle is the question of a person’s character or personality. Aristotle theory is the middle ground between extremes, to determine a lowest and highest good. Aristotle ethics are based on the concept of doing good than just being good. A person may be kind, merciful, charitable, etc. , but until he proves this by helping others, his goodness means nothing to the world, in which case means nothing to himself. Aristotle believes that moral virtues are the best character traits; a vice is what it is called when there are two extreme character traits. An example would be fear; we would develop the virtuous character of courage. If we were to use an example to show extreme trait by curbing fear, too much would be rash, which is called a vice. If, one on the other extreme, we develop a vice therefore to be cowardly. In life it is difficult to live the virtuous life because often difficult to find the mean or the middle between the two extremes. Another example would be shamelessness (deficiency), modesty, (mean), and bashfulness, (excess). At the top of Aristotle list for virtue is self-respect is the best virtue to have, according to him but that is, depending on them for its existence, and itself in turn tending to strengthen their force. Aristotle says moral weakness occurs when someone does something wrong and knows it is wrong but follows his desire against reason anyways. According to Aristotle, human functions contribute to happiness. Happiness is an exclusively human good; it exists in rational activity of soul conforming to virtue. This rational activity is viewed as the supreme end of action, and so as man’s perfect and self-sufficient end. So the virtue of courage would be in between those two extremes. Summary Aristotle is considered by some as the quintessential philosopher of all times. His writings and teachings have influenced many people such as writers, artist, politicians and scientists. One of the greatest commanders of the world was a student of Aristotle. This student was born Alexander the Great. Alexander study under the guidance of Aristotle until the age of sixteen learning medicine, philosophy, morals, religion, logic, and art. He was a major influence on the field of science. Alexander remained humble and grateful for the teachings of Aristotle, as a result he helped fund his studies of life forms, which led to the foundation of the science of biology. Biology is the study of life and living organisms. The study of biology has help man understand the many facets of nature. Aristotle empirical views focused on biology and its diversity of life. Biology has grown significantly and dramatically since the days of Aristotle, but his influences are still evident even by today’s standards. Zoology, human biology, and botany are subcategories of biology. There have been advances in the subcategory of human biology, which have led to the creation of cures for diseases once deemed incurable or preventable. Scientists are currently producing a medication touted as a new treatment of the HIV disease. Raynor (2012), â€Å"the FDA on August 28, 2012 has approved a once a day pill manufactured by Gilead Sciences’ called Stribild. The drug combines Truvada which itself contains two HIV drugs in addition to elvitegravir which is a new HIV drug. This new drug attacks the virus in a different way. The fourth ingredient is also new and enhances elvitegravir. This new medication can help control the virus that causes AIDS and is aimed to be utilized on patients that have not previously been treated for the infection† (para. 1). This advance in human biology could not have been possible without the Aristotle’s foresight to preserve human life. His quest for knowledge has been a motivation tool for mankind to function and exist. Aristotle has also influenced the philosophies of metaphysics, epistemology, and axiology. According to â€Å"Aristotle† (2008), â€Å"Aristotle (384–322 B. C. E. ) numbers among the greatest philosophers of all time. Judged solely in terms of his philosophical influence, only Plato is his peer: Aristotle’s works shaped centuries of philosophy from Late Antiquity through the Renaissance, and even today continue to be studied with keen, non-antiquarian interest. A prodigious researcher and writer, Aristotle left a great body of work, perhaps numbering as many as two-hundred treatises, from which approximately thirty-one survive. His extant writings span a wide range of disciplines, from logic, metaphysics and philosophy of mind, through ethics, political theory, aesthetics and rhetoric, and into such primarily non-philosophical fields as empirical biology, where he excelled at detailed plant and animal observation and taxonomy. In all these areas, Aristotle’s theories have provided illumination, met with resistance, sparked debate, and generally stimulated the sustained interest of an abiding readership† (para. 1). References Aristotle. (2008). Retrieved from http://plato. stanford. edu/entries/aristotle/ Aristotle, , & Ciulla, J. (2004). Aristotle (384–322 BCE). In G. Goethals, G. Sorenson, & J. Burns (Eds. ), Encyclopedia of leadership. (pp. 44-48). Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, Inc. doi: 10. 4135/9781412952392. n15 English, F. (2006). Aristotle. In F. English (Ed. ), Encyclopedia of educational leadership and administration. (pp. 49-50). Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, Inc. doi: 10. 4135/9781412939584. n27 Howell, B. (2008). Aristotle (384–322 b. c. ). In L. Kaid, & C. Holtz-Bacha (Eds. ), Encyclopedia of political communication. (pp. 43-46). Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, Inc. doi: 10. 4135/9781412953993. n34 Raynor, C. (2012). New HIV treatment combines 4 medications into a once a day pill. Retrieved from http://www. examiner. com/article/new-hiv-treatment-combines-4- medications-into-a-once-a-day-pill Sachs, J. (2001, April 11). Aristotle: Ethics. Retrieved August 28, 2012, from http://www. iep. utm. edu/aris-eth/ http://www. angelfire. com/md2/timewarp/firstphilosophy. html.

America’s Greatest Fear Essay

The Ebola virus was discovered in the late 1970s by the international community as the causative agent of major outbreaks of hemorrhagic fever in Africa’s Sudan and Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and Sudan (Vasilyevich IV, et al. 2005). Immediately, the International scientific teams moved in to deal with these highly virulent epidemics where their findings revealed that the transmission had exponentially ceased; however, the team could not reconstruct a considerable data from the survivors of the epidemic. The high death rate of medical staff resulted to the closure of many medical facilities, thus doing away with major centers for dissemination of infection through the use of untreated needles, syringes and the lack of barrier-nursing techniques. The deadly Ebola virus is killing thousands of innocent people worldwide, but there are steps being taken to prevent the virus from spreading. In 1989, Ebola virus was reported in the United States of America when it appeare d in monkeys who were imported into a Reston, Virginia, primate facility outside of Washington, DC. Epidemics in monkeys which occurred in this facility and others lasted through 1992 (Georges, 1997) and recurred in 1996. Later, epidemiologic studies were conducted in connection with both epidemics and they successfully traced the virus introductions to one Philippine exporter. However, the studies failed to detect the actual cause and source of the virus. Due to political instability, scientists’ attempts to work in the remote areas where the monkeys were seized have been too small. Laboratory studies were stimulated in order to control these introduced virus outbreaks which were realized in 1989 and chimpanzee inbreed in the 1990s in order to improve diagnosis of nonhuman primate infections (Fields, et Al 1996). However, it has not been confirmed since the materials that were necessary to definitively confirm the utility of these techniques for humans were not provided. After Ebola hemorrhagic fever was discovered in Africa between 1976 and 1979, it was not seen again unti l the year 1994. It is believed by scientists that during this time, possibly it was circulating in its natural reservoir. On the other hand, the virus might have been causing sporadic human infections that remained undetected because Ebola patients never contaminated medical facilities to produce the savage nosocomial epidemics that brought Ebola virus to medical attention. Between 1981 and 1985, Ebola  virus surveillance was carried out simultaneously with intensified efforts to contain monkey pox (Vasilyevich IV, et al. 2005). This surveillance may have identified several cases and estimated the prevalence among the population; however, the findings are subject to caveats because of problems with the validity of laboratory tests. Serosurveillance in 1995 also suggested that human infections may have occurred from time to time. It is believed that the Ebola virus may have initially been transmitted to humans from bats (Renaud AA, et al. 199) Bioinformatics researchers all over the world especially those at Lancaster University in the United Kingdom, have found that there is a concrete circumstantial case that says infection by bats is likely, but renowned scientists haven’t actually found strong evidence to support this hypothesis. During the period of 1994–1996, almost five independent active sites of Ebola virus transmission were identified: Cà ´te d’Ivoire in 1994 ; Democratic Republic of the Congo in 1995 (Georges, 1997) and Gabon in 1994, 1995, and 1996 . The initially known Zaire subtype of Ebola virus and the newly discovered Cà ´te d’Ivoire subtype were both involved in the report, and as in previous African Ebola virus transmissions, the active sites were within or near tropical forests, for instance along riverine forests. Ebola outbreaks have been reported since its discovery in late 1970s. The first outbreak happened in 1976 in the Republic of Congo. The disease was spread by close personal contact. There were 318 reported cases and 280 of the people died as a result of the virus. Years later in 1995 the Republic of Congo had yet another outbreak. This time 250 of the people infected died. In 2001 in Uganda Ebola appeared out of nowhere. There were 425 reported cases of the virus, 224 of the reported cases ended in death. The biggest outbreak came as of recently, this year. There was a widespread outbreak across West African countries. Over 9,000 reported cases came from this outbreak, 4,800 of the cases resulted in death. There were some people who came in contact with the Ebola virus that were from the United States. The Ebola virus mainly attacks cells of the lymphatic organs, liver, kidney, ovaries, testes, and the cells of the reticuloendothelial system. A trademark of Ebola is liver destruction. The person infected person with the virus loses a big amount of blood. In some of the deadly cases shock and acute respiratory disorder is prevalent. Some of the victims can be delirious from the high fevers. Many people die from  the intractable shock. Research done on infectious Ebola and Marburg viruses are always done in a maximum biological containment setup popularly known as Biosafety Level 4. Biosafety Level 4 laboratories require extremely specialized equipment to prevent the spread of the pathogens that are investigated in them. Ebola is stable and remains infective at room temperature (20 °C), but it is mostly destroyed at 60 °C (Fields, et Al 1996) Its’ infectivity is also terminated by gamma and ultraviolet radiation, lipid solvents, ß-propiolactone, and commercial hypochlorite and phenolic disinfectants. Currently there is no FDA-approved vaccine available for Ebola, it is better for prevalent measures be taken as a way of reducing Ebola infections. There are numerous ways to prevent yourself from Ebola. Practice careful hygiene; hands should be washed thoroughly with soap and clean water or an alcohol-based hand sanitizer. Try as much as you can and avoid contact with blood and body fluids from uncertain people. Avoid handling items that may have come in contact with an infected person’s blood or body fluids, such as clothes, bedding, needles, and medical equipment carelessly. Some bats are believed to be reservoirs of Ebola Virus and therefore avoid contact with such bats and other nonhuman primates or raw meat prepared from these animals. Tourists and travelers should avoid facilities in West Africa where Ebola patients are being treated. Healthcare workers who may be handling people infected with Ebola follow certain steps to ensure that they do not come in contact with the virus. It is recommended for one to wear appropriate personal protective equipment including impermeable gowns, gloves, and masks. Before being allowed to care for infected patients all workers must observe proper infection control and sterilization measures. Patients with Ebola must be isolated from other patients following strict contact and droplet isolation procedures. Members of the heath care team cannot come into contact with blood or body fluids, such as, feces, saliva, urine, vomit, and semen of a person who is infected with Ebola. People who have been infected and survived the Ebola virus can also spread the virus through semen for at least ninety days after being declared virus free. The symptoms Ebola are fever, diarrhea, vomiting, severe headache, weakness, fatigue, muscle pain, abdominal pain, and unexplained bleeding or bruising. These  symptoms are one of the major reasons Ebola is transmitted so easily. These symptoms are often described as â€Å"flu-like† or â€Å"stomach flu† symptoms and are easily overlooked. The Ebola symptoms may appear anywhere from 2 to 21 days after exposure to Ebola, but in most reported cases the average is 8 to 10 days. Ebola is only transmitted when infected persons are actively showing symptoms. Currently there are only supportive treatments available to help care for Ebola patients. Patients will be given IV fluids to maintain fluid balance as Ebola is known to produce copious amounts of emesis and stool, medications to help maintain and regulate blood pressure, antipyretics for fevers, ventilation assistance for help with breathing, and dialysis if the patient does into kidney failure. There are experimental drugs that have been used in the treatment of Ebola. Drugs such as Z-Mapp and Brincidofovir have been used in patients to help beat the Ebola virus. While some patients have been successfully treated with these drugs it is also important to remember that these drugs could have many side effects and a testing has not been completed so there are still many questions to the safety and efficiency of their use. Before being approved for use in regular populations these drugs must complete clinical trials and be proven safe and effective. Patients who have survived Ebola have antibodies to the virus for about ten years. During this time they can be a vital source of help for others battling the virus. A donation of life saving plasma from a survivor to an infected person will help the person to begin developing antibodies to begin fighting the virus. To receive plasma the patients must have a matching blood type. Thousands of innocent people have died as the result of the deadly virus. Ebola has been around for over four decades and has really come into the main stream media focus. Ebola has not affected America in the ways that it has ravaged through many of the countries in Africa. To protect our families from this devastating and deadly virus we must practice impeccable hand hygiene and use good sense when travelling especially internationally. Work Cited Akinfeyeva LA, Aksyonova OI, Vasilyevich IV, et al. A case of Ebola hemorrhagic fever. Infektsionnye Bolezni (Moscow). 2005;3(1):85–88 Emond RT, Evans B, Bowen ET, et al. A case of Ebola virus infection. British Medical Journal. 1977;2(6086):541-544. Fields, Bernard, ed. † Filoviridae: Marburg and Ebola Viruses.† Field’s Virology, Third Edition. Lippincott-Raven: New York. 1996. 1161-1176. Georges AJ, Leroy EM, Renaud AA, et al. Ebola hemorrhagic fever outbreaks in Gabon, 1994-1997: epidemiologic and health control issues. Journal of Infectious Diseases. 1999;179:S65-75. Khan AS, Tshioko FK, Heymann DL, et al. The Reemergence of Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever, Democratic Republic of the Congo, 1995. Journal of Infectious Diseases. 1999;179:S76-S86. Le Guenno, Bernard, P. Formenty, and C. Boesch. â€Å"Ebola Virus Outbreaks in the Ivory Coast and Liberia, 1994-1995.† Ibid. Okware SI, Omaswa FG, Zaramba S, et al. An outbreak of Ebola in Uganda. Tropical Medicine and International Health. 2002;7(12):1068-1075.

Struggle for Individuality Essay

The autobiography, Black Boy, follows the life of Richard Wright and his experiences as a young African American teenager facing racism in the South. Throughout the novel, Wright focuses on the oppression society inflicts upon him. He finds difficulty in remaining employed because he does not act â€Å"black† or submissive enough. He is physically and emotionally attacked for being African American as the majority of the South contains an extremely racist culture. Wright does not even have his family to rely on for support because they criticize and beat him as well. Differences within his family along with incidences of violent attacks and disrespectful language plague Wright and try to deplete his confidence and identity. However, Wright simultaneously finds measures within these aspects to gain back his individuality and happiness. He fights back through violence to uphold his right of walking safely in Memphis; he uses all of his ability to avoid beatings from his family, and he finds joy and sense of worth when he writes stories. Ultimately, Wright struggles to keep his sense of identity in a society that degrades his persona, but manages to obtain his individuality in the end. Through violence, Wright begins to understand that society is laying out a persona for him to accept that is not initially his. In the South, he learns he must accept the role as the meek and respectful â€Å"nigger.† Wright experiences violence one day that teaches him how whites expect him to act in the South. Wright recounts, â€Å"The car stopped and the white men piled out and stood over me. ‘Nigger, ain’t you learned no better sense’n that yet?’ asked the man who hit me. ‘Ain’t you learned to say sir to a white man yet?’† (181). Wright is smashed between the eyes with a glass bottle when he does not answer a white man by â€Å"sir†. The repetition of questions from the white man illustrates the authority the white man feels over Wright. The white man questions Wright as if he is an uneducated child. His word choice of â€Å"sense† portrays that saying â€Å"sir† to a white man should be common sense. After this incident, Wright â€Å"[learns] rapidly how to watch white people, to observe their every move, every fleeting expression, how to interpret what was said and what left unsaid† (181). He treats and studies white people delicately to ensure that he does not upset the balance between the higher  citizen and lower citizen, and thus does not have to suffer their brutal consequences. As Wright learns he is unable to act naturally, society gradually shapes him into what it thinks he should be. Wright recalls, â€Å"all the violent expressions of hate and hostility that had seeped into us from our surroundings, came now to the surface to guide our actions† (83). Wright’s utilization of the â€Å"h† alliteration in â€Å"hate† and â€Å"hostility† emphasizes a heavy â€Å"h† sound to reinforce the thickness and greatness of their conflict, that their differences were not just on the surface, but blood deep. The â€Å"s† alliteration in the word, â€Å"seeped,† â€Å"surroundings,† and â€Å"surface† creates a low, rattling â€Å"s† sound to create a sense of savagery in their actions. As Wright grows, he begins to experience the segregation between white and black. He also begins to accept the role of an angry African American that society casts him to play. He learns that he must act as a quiet and obedient â€Å"nigger† as he is constantly beaten whenever he acts otherwise. Wright’s family also takes away his freedom to be himself as they consistently beat him. In one incidence, he tells of the time his Uncle Tom was infuriated with the way he speaks. His uncle says, â€Å"I never heard a sassier black imp than you in all my life† (157). Wright does not understand what he said or what he did wrong; yet his uncle is persistent in beating him, believing that Wright does not know how to live with people. Wright asks â€Å"How long was I going to be beaten for trifles and less than trifles?† (158). Wright’s questioning of time illustrates the weariness he feels toward his family. He cannot endure any more beatings over trivial matters. Because of his family members, Wright is trapped in his grandmother’s home. He is unable to speak freely as his family members find him impolite. The one place that Richard Wright should feel comfortable, if nowhere else, is his own home, but he is so alienated by his family that he cannot. Wright feels that the only way he can escape his mental imprisonment is by moving to the North, thus creating the North as a symbol of hope. Language functions as a powerful device that portrays white women attacking Wright’s individuality. When Wright searches for jobs and interacts with  white people for the first time, he experiences a double consciousness: how he views himself and how the white women view him. The language that white interviewers use is insulting and depicts how unintelligent they perceive him. After a few interviews Wright â€Å"quickly [learns] the reality- a Negro’s reality- of the white world† (148) as being thought of as dumb witted. The first woman illogically asks Wright if he steals to that white he thinks, â€Å"Only an idiot would have answered: Yes ma’am. I steal† (146). When Wright answers. â€Å"Lady, if I was a thief, I’d never tell anybody,† the lady bluntly states, â€Å"Now, look, we don’t want a sassy nigger around here† (145). The first interviewer seems to believe that black people do not have enough sense to lie abou t stealing, even when they are being interviewed for a job position. She considers a black person with common sense as a â€Å"sassy nigger.† The last interviewer finds it appalling that Wright cannot milk a cow as she mentions, â€Å"You mean to stand there, nigger, and tell me that you live in Jackson and don’t know how to milk a cow?† (149). She places Wright in the stereotype that all black boys from Jackson know how to milk a cow. The fact that she demanded an answer in surprise illustrates the disbelief she feels in finding one black person that cannot milk a cow. The white women stereotype Richard as an uneducated black boy with no level of intelligence and skill. They insult his knowledge and strip him of his individuality believing that all black boys are the same. The white women demean him causing him to leave every interview. The portrayal of the white women labeling Richard Wright as another dumb â€Å"nigger† illustrates how narrow-minded and similar they are to each other. Within Black Boy, language illustrates the racial resentment that the white women feel towards Wright for the color of his skin. Language acts as a device seizing Richard’s individuality and personal respect he obtains for himself. Although Richard Wright’s relationship with violence, family and language teach him that he was no power as an individual, Wright rebels and utilizes these same aspects in an effort to seek some sort of control. Wright’s mother is the first to offer him power through violence. Wright recalls, â€Å"I was baffled. My mother was telling me to fight, a thing that she had never  done before† (17). After Wright fights off a group of boys with a stick and delivers his mother’s groceries he says, â€Å"on my way back I kept my stick poised for instant use, but there was not a single boy in sight. That night I won the right to the streets of Memphis† (18). Although violence acts as a method to teach him of his lower social stance in society, he is able to gain personal power though this same violence. After bearing those boys, he is able to walk freely by himself in peace. In addition, Wright gains power within his family as he refuses to be whipped. After his Aunt Addie whips him in class for walnuts that another boy had left he says, â€Å"I was sure of one thing: I would not be beaten by her again† (107). Many times throughout the novel Richard’s family relatives endeavor to beat him, but he refuses and with that gains power over them and individuality because he will not let them lay a single hand upon him. Wright recalls, â€Å"Aunt Addie took her defeat hard [†¦] I was conscious that she had descended to my own emotional level in her effort to rule me, and my respect for her sank† (110). After Aunt Addie tried to beat him for a fault he did not commit and fails, he begins to feel that he is on the same level of an adult. Furthermore, Wright is able to obtain power and individuality again through language. When Richard is younger he writes a passage about an Indian girl; he says, â€Å"I had never in my life done anything like it; I had made something, no matter how bad it was; and it was mine† (120). Afterwards, Richard shows his written passage to his neighbor and â€Å"her inability to grasp what [he] had done or was trying to somehow gratified [him]† (121). Being able to write gives Richard a strong sense of individuality since it is his creation. Writing the passage also gives Wright a surge of empowerment, as his neighbor cannot fathom why or how he did it. Throughout Black Boy, Richard Wright is inhibited as a person. He is expected to act as a subservient African American. He is insulted and degraded for merely possessing a different color of skin. Wright is restrained by society and learns this oppression when he is violently beaten by white people as well as his family. Wright quickly learns how white people view him as inferior when they insult his intelligence and stereotype  him as a person that will never amount to anything. Richard Wright is constantly belittled as a person, but he uses these same aspects to gain back his power as an individual. He fights a range of people, from a gang of kids trying to take his money to his own family relatives, in order to keep his sense of power. He writes short stories that bring him happiness and confidence and respect. Black Boy offers the life story of Richard Wright’s battle against violence, family differences, and insulting language to uphold his individuality and freedom to be himself against all forces.

16th Century U.K. Epidemics and its Impact on the British Essay

16th Century U.K. Epidemics and its Impact on the British - Essay Example This paper discusses the impact of epidemics upon the British people in the 16th century (1500-1600) with reference to three common diseases. The first part is a brief introduction on what an epidemic is and its causes.The second part is on England before and during the 16th century to show why it became prone to epidemics The third part is on epidemics of malaria, influenza, and the plague in 16th century England and its effects on the English people and their history.An epidemic is an outbreak of a contagious disease that affects an unusually large proportion of people or involves an extensive geographical area. Epidemics such as the recent SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome) outbreak in Asia may last for a few months, but some last for years, such as the plague that ravaged Europe for six centuries (Encarta, 2007; Ranger & Slack, 1992).Epidemiology is the study of how diseases are transmitted and how people infected by diseases can be cured to control the extent of epidemics. Diseases are caused by organisms such as bacteria or parasites, some of which lie dormant until they reside in a living host.Others are caused by viruses, strands of DNA that enter cells of living creatures and cause mutations that affect the living body. Once these organisms enter the host through infection, they multiply and cause the host to get sick, turning the host into a carrier of disease-causing organisms in very large numbers. Disease-causing organisms are spread by contamination of food and water, physical contact, or the exchange of bodily fluids like saliva, semen, or blood, or through insects, rodents, and other disease-carrying animals known as vectors or agents that infect human populations. In the past, these diseases were believed to be caused by "germs" that spread their evil effects in the air. So lethal were these germs that they changed the fates of human societies in the last 13,000 years (Diamond, 2005). Germs went through a deadly cycle of mutation and adaptation, infecting animals and humans, each mutation giving rise to deadlier forms or diseases. Bacteria, parasites, and viruses need to eat in order to live and multiply. Germs (or microbes) do not exist to kill other living beings. Death is an unfortunate consequence, and if germs had their way, they would prefer their hosts to stay healthy, as millions of bacteria already do in the human body, helping in digestion and fighting deadlier diseases. Disease and death are unintended consequences of germs finding living bodies in which to live, encouraged by environmental conditions and the habits of the living hosts. Poor living conditions and poor sanitation, the concentration of populations into a smaller area that encouraged greater and frequent social contact, the thirst for discovery and travel to foreign lands, the search for greater wealth and prosperity, changes in weather conditions, and even a rise in promiscuity were the factors that increased the frequency of disease and epidemics (Wilkinson, 1992). Epidemics eventually die down once the conditions for their transmission disappear. In several parts of Europe in the Middle Ages, the plague disappeared from a town because half its population who were still healthy and uninfected were able to get away, while half including animals were infected and died. With no new living hosts, the bacteria could not survive. Weather changes also affected the rate of infection, whether they encouraged people to stay home or to go out. Either way, infection could spread at a faster rate through proximity and social contact. These conditions led to epidemics that would die down when these factors disappear. England in the 16th Century At the turn of the 16th century, Spain and Portugal was the European superpower, and having just discovered America through Columbus, it launched until the middle of the 16th century several sea voyages that led to the discovery of South America, Africa, the Pacific